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  Prenatal Diagnosis

Posted by Timothy Best in Science And Society - Best - Y on
The science behind prenatal diagnosis

Prenatal diagnosis is the screening or testing for genetic diseases or other conditions before a child is born. Although there are many different techniques and tests, I will focus on a few:

  • Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD): During an IVF cycle, cells from the developing embryo can be genetically analyzed for chromosomal abnormalities - usually trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome), trisomy 13 and trisomy 18. The parents can then determine which embryos, if any, to transfer into the uterus. It is also possible to determine the sex of the embryo.

  • Ultrasound: An ultrasound uses sound waves to “look” at a fetus as it develops in the uterus. Since sound waves reflect off of tissues differently depending on the density of the tissue, the sonographer can create images of the fetus’ external and internal anatomy. Ultrasound can be used to measure an embryo or fetus in order to predict the due date, detect twins, diagnose heart and other growth defects, measure heart rate, look for signs associated with Down Syndrome, and determine the sex of the fetus.

  • Chorionic villus sampling: The chorionic villi are a part of the placenta that arises directly from the embryo (as opposed to the mother). They are, therefore, genetically identical to the developing embryo. Chorionic villi can be removed from the placenta and genetically analyzed to detect Down Syndrome and other genetic disorders. CVS has a slight risk (.5-1%) of miscarriage, and can also lead to amniotic fluid leakage and/or infection.

  • Amniocentesis: A fetus develops in the amniotic sac, which is full of amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid contains fetal cells that have naturally sloughed off. The doctor, using an ultrasound image as a guide, inserts a needle through the mother’s skin, abdominal wall, uterine wall, and into the amniotic sac, away from the fetus. Amniotic fluid is then collected, and the fetal cells contained in the fluid can be analyzed for genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome. Amniocentesis has similar risks as CVS, although CVS can be done earlier.

  • Maternal Blood Testing: A relatively recently developed technique can detect fetal DNA in the mother’s blood stream. Thus, with a simple blood draw, the fetus’ sex can be determined, and it can be screened for a variety of genetic disorders.


Societal Impacts

While the above techniques may sound like wonderful advances in medicine, they also have their downsides. First, there’s a difference between screening and testing. A prenatal genetic screen - like maternal blood testing - only gives the level of risk of a condition, but it can not with 100% certainty diagnose a condition. Prenatal genetic tests - like amniocentesis and CVS - are more diagnostic, but also have higher risks for the pregnancy. And if a non-invasive screen detects a high risk for Down Syndrome, for example, the parents are then faced with the decision of whether or not to do a more invasive, high risk test in order to more accurately determine whether Down Syndrome is present. If the results of a CVS or amniocentesis indicate a genetic disorder, then the couple could be faced with the decision to terminate the pregnancy. At the very least, these weeks of testing and waiting for results can be draining and extremely stressful. Pregnancy can already be a stressful time, and these prenatal screens and test can add to that anxiety.


On the other hand, some parents feel that they’d like to know the risks, regardless of the outcome of a test. If a screening test comes back positive for a genetic disorder, then the parents at least won’t be surprised at the birth. They’ll have time to prepare, educate themselves, and possibly arrange for special care that might be needed for their newborn.


Some people opt out of the screens and tests altogether. They might argue that what’s meant to be is meant to be, and they’d rather spare themselves the stress and anxiety surrounding these tests and their results.


And finally, with PGD it is possible to choose the sex of your child. This is illegal in some countries, including Canada - but not the US. Given that IVF and PGD could cost $15000-$20000, the opportunity to screen embryos for genetic conditions and possibly select the sex would not be affordable for everyone. Is this fair? Should people be allowed to choose the sex of their children?


Personal opinions

As someone who loves science, I’m fascinated by these medical advances, and support further research into tests and screens like these. It’s exciting when new, improved tests come out that can help people get answers to their pregnancy concerns, and hopefully allay some of their fears. However, it’s easy for me to support these tests in a general, abstract way. It becomes more complicated when we’re talking about real pregnancies in my personal life. I’ve gone through some of these discussions and decisions, and sometimes there is no easy answer. I can see why people would be in the “no testing” camp - the screenings and testing definitely can raise anxiety and stress levels during pregnancy, which can already be pretty stressful. Still, I’m glad the tests are available, and I think they should continue to be offered to pregnant women. Key to this though, is that they need to be able to make informed decisions. Through discussions with their doctor and a knowledgeable genetic counselor, the parents-to-be can weigh the pros and cons for themselves, and then decide how they want to handle the conundrum of prenatal genetic diagnosis.



References:

Nierneberg, C. (2014). Prenatal Genetic Screening Tests: Benefits & Risks. Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.livescience.com/45949-prenatal-genetic-testing.html


Sidhu, J. (n.d.). Women Are Paying Huge Sums To Have a Daughter Rather Than a Son. Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/medical_examiner/2012/09/sex_selection_in_babies_through_pgd_americans_are_paying_to_have_daughters_rather_than_sons_.html


I wish I hadn't known: The ups and downs of prenatal testing. (n.d.). Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.pregnancyandbaby.com/pregnancy/articles/944203/i-wish-i-hadnt-known-the-ups-and-downs-of-prenatal-testing


Smallpox

Posted by Shaion Denny in Science And Society - Best - Y on

​Science:
Smallpox are a rash on your body that turns into small bumps. After the small bumps appear they will turn into larger bumps and the final step of it caused crater like marks in the persons body. It was discovered back in the 1700's by Dr. Jenner. The way he discovered it was he injected a small boy with cowpox just to see what would happen and the result was the boy conducted the cowpox which was just renamed smallpox for humans. 

Society:
Smallpox now has been completely eliminated but when it was a thing some of the ways they thought of curing it was to actually get rid of the small bumps before they enlarged. This method sort of just cut out the middle man because the people were left with crater like wounds on their bodies anyway.

Self:
Well theres not much to say I don't have smallpox and I don't plan on making it a thing again.  

Presentation:
https://docs.google.com/a/scienceleadership.org/presentation/d/1nHQOCbdv593UkQ8iu-cqyNR4qzNLRB-w_iXLiX5P0xc/edit?usp=sharing 

Bibliography:

"Vaccination." Vaccination. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. <http://www.jennermuseum.com/vaccination.html>.


"Smallpox - Google Search." Smallpox - Google Search. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. <https://www.google.com/search?q=smallpox>.


Bacteriophages

Posted by Raz Reed in Science And Society - Best - Y on

A bacteriophage is a virus. A virus is any pathogen that can only replicate in the living cells of other organisms. They are not considered "alive" by most scientists because of their relatively simple structure compared to even the simplest life forms. In fact, some viruses have as few as 1300 nucleotides -- whereas humans have 3 billion. They say that all the DNA in one human cell, when stretched out, would be roughly 6 feet long. For many viruses, that length could be measured in micrometers.
Viruses only do one thing: make more of themselves. Many viruses, such as bacteriophages, do this by consuming their host. The word "bacteriophage" is derived from "bacteria" and "phagein," which is Greek for "devour." The below image shows the anatomy of a bacteriophage.
bacteriophage-diagram
bacteriophage-diagram
​ In order for a bacteriophage to reproduce, it must first find a cell. It has no way of propelling itself so it must float around until it comes in contact with a receptor on the surface of the cell. Its tail fibers attach around the receptor and flex to bring its base plate closer to the surface until it is bound there. It is able to do this because of ATP in each tail. Then, the bacteriophage's genetic material in its head is pumped into the cell. Once this occurs, the bacteriophage is, for all intents and purposes, "dead."
But that's not the end of it -- the cell's ribosomes start translating the viral mRNA instead of cell mRNA. As a result, instead of doing normal cell things such as synthesizing proteins, the cell starts making copies of the bacteriophage using the mRNA as a blueprint. The cell ceases all normal function and only makes these copies until its membrane collapses and many new bacteriophages are released.
Here's a video of the process.

In 1896, Ernest Hankin collected a sample of water from the Ganges River that cholera bacteria. He noticed that something was killing the cholerae but could not figure out what. It remained a mystery until 1915, when Twort discovered the extremely tiny little entities responsible, bacteriophages. His findings were later confirmed by a scientist known as Félix d'Hérelle who took part in this discovery.
D'Hérelle conceptualized a practical application for bacteriophages, a process called phage therapy. Phage therapy is the use of bacteriophages (and/or other bacteria-killing viruses) to fight bacterial infection. Phage therapy gained support from medical professionals in the US and Soviet Georgia, but in the US its practice was short-lived as antibiotics, considered a better method than phage therapy, was discovered only several years after. However, phage therapy is currently being revisited in research as a counter to anthrax and botulism. Here is a culture of bacillus anthracis (anthrax) awhile after bacteriophages were added.
anthraxxx
anthraxxx
​Bibliography:

Sleep Paralysis.

Posted by Adowa Mohamed in Science And Society - Best - Y on

​Science:
- When entering REM sleep, the brain shuts down the release of certain neurotransmitters and causes paralysis. 
- sleep paralysis is one common symptom of narcolepsy, most sufferers are not narcoleptic.
- Occurs during REM sleep when awoken from it. It is the transitions between sleep and being awake.


Society:
- nearly a third of americans are sleep deprived and irregular sleep partners are the leading causes of sleep paralysis. Being sleep deprived can lead to many different sleep disorder. 


Self:

- I have been having sleep paralysis for almost 3 years now and it has been something that very much interested me. So I decided to present about it. 

Sleepwalking

Posted by Kevin Horton in Science And Society - Best - Y on

Science
What is it?
-Performing tasks/walking while asleep
-Different Kind of REM Sleep (Takes place in 1-2)
Society
-People Have done this for a long time.
-One case of nun charged for DUI
-Sleep Deprivation can increase Chances of Sleepwalking
-More Likely In twins
Self
I have never experienced Sleepwalking but I have had dreams of normal everyday life tasks that seems like sleepwalking.

Metabolic Syndrome

Posted by Brian Torres in Science And Society - Best - Y on

​Science:
  • Name representing group of risk factors that raise a person's risk of various diseases
  • Also known as: 
  • Dysmetabolic Syndrome
  • Hypertriglyceridemic Waist
  • Insulin Resistance Syndrome
  • Syndrome X
  • Symptoms/Risk Factors
  • Large Waistline
  • High levels of Triglyceride
  • Low levels of HDL cholesterol
  • High Blood Pressure
  • High Blood Sugar
  • Mainly occurs when a person has 3 or more of the risk factors
  • People who have Metabolic Syndrome have a greater risk of having cardiovascular diseases later on in life
  • Also can lead to diabetes, stroke(s), and/or diseases related to a buildup of fat
Society:
  • Very common
  • Around 3 million cases of people with Metabolic Syndrome every year
  • Around 32% of the US population has it
  • 85% of people with Type 2 Diabetes have it
  • 25% of all Adults in Europe or Latin American countries have it
  • 40% of people ages 60 and up have it
  • People who have Metabolic Syndrome can cure it with things like, losing weight, and/or change in diet
Me:
  • I don't have any of the diseases or suffer from Metabolic Syndrome
  • However, my Father suffered from Metabolic Syndrome when he was young and now has Diabetes
Sources:

Allergies

Posted by Avery Monroe in Science And Society - Best - Y on

​Science

  • Allergies are a bad response from our bodies to a substance

    • An external stimulant either ingested or airborne

  • Allergens are seen as foreign to our bodies and we react to them.

  • When our bodies come in contact with allergens it releases antibodies

    • A protein that attaches to some antigens.

    • Antibodies are y shaped proteins

  • When having an allergic reaction:

    • Antibody and antigen attach and travel to the mast cell in body tissue.

      • The purpose is to flush out allergen.

      • Kill chemicals that cause allergic reaction
    There are a couple different kinds that happen when we come in contact with different allergens. Theres hay fever which the most common, they are seasonal allergies. The next one is Contact dermatitis and this happens when we a chemical in a soap, lotion, detergent, or clothing makes us react and we get a rash. The last one is a food allergy which we get when we eat certain foods and they can make us sick. Sometimes when people with food allergies eat the food they are allergic to their throats can close or they can have swelling in the face or mouth. One other thing that is important is anaphylaxis, this is when we have one of the above allergies, but we react much different to that and it is more extreme then it would be if we had a regular allergy.
Society

  • In 2010, $17.5 billion dollars were spent on health costs by people with nasal swelling they lost approximately 6 million days at work/school and made 16 million doctor visits.

  • Food allergies cost about $25 billion each year.
Self
I have really bad allergies and I have had them for a while now, so this was something that was interesting and important to me. I also did it because it is allergy season


Here is a link to my full slide show

Day Light Saving

Posted by Gabrielle Smullen in Science And Society - Best - Y on

Science:
Day light saving time is occurs twice a year where you turn your clocks an hour back for the winter and turn them an hour ahead for the spring. This is supposed to allow us to conserve time and energy. Studies show that day light saving time shows an overall increase in residential electricity. Back in World War I they took advantage of day light saving time to say electricity, coal etc. Benjamin Franklin was one of the first advocates for day light saving.  

Society:
People can argue that it saves energy, some say it does some say it doesn't. It has a mixed effect on people's health, some people suffer different types of health issues because their bodies and minds have a hard time adjusting to day light saving. 

Self:
I personally like dight light saving when we gain an extra hour of sleep but I don't like when it gets dark early. 

Heartbreak

Posted by Myrna Yousuf in Science And Society - Best - Y on

Science: Humans are very social beings. In our life we form different kinds of relationship with people. However, some relationships don’t last and can lead to heartbreak. People may not know that the reason they feel such pain during a heartbreak has a lot to do with their brain. A study done by the Journal of Neurophysiology showed that the area where physical pain activates in the brain when people see pictures of the person they broke up with. A break up is much like withdrawal of cocaine. Our physical and emotional parts of the brain share the same neural pathways. That is why some people experience difficulty sleeping, weight gain, stress, depression, and less critical thinking. When we feel physical pain the anterior cingulate cortes is stimutaled and also happens when we feel emotional pain. Therefore, the brain tells you that this breakup is physically painful or is causing you to feel physical symptoms. We as humans evolutionary evolved to be a part of things that keeps us strong and helps our survival. As we form these social relationships as an important part of survival.


Society: A lot of people don’t really relate anything scientific to the idea of heartbreak. They just think that certain behaviors after a break up is normal due to the nature of the situation. However, many people don’t realize that a break up in a long term relationship has a lot of neurological aspects that affect us. However, it does take time to recover from a situation like this because our brain also has to get used to it. Depending on how deep the relationship and how much the brain was “addicted” to the person in the relationship can affect how a person behaves and changes. According to ASAP science, there are studies that show people would rather be physically hurt than be socially excluded. We are more likely to reproduce and survive than being alone.


Self: I know that in movies and TV in general breakups are shown to be bad things. It also happens in real life where you can see these sypmtoms of heartbreak happening but you don’t realize how this really impacts you in the long run or in the moment being. In my religion, it is though that if someone is not meant for you they won’t be in your life or they will for a short amount of time. It is believed that you will find someone better and someone who is meant for you. I think that heartbreak is a real thing and that it really does impact a person but it is something that can take some time to get over.

References:

A. (2013). The Science of Heartbreak. Retrieved April 14, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGglw8eAikY


This Is What Happens To Your Body After A Breakup [VIDEO]. (2014). Retrieved April 14, 2016, from http://www.medicaldaily.com/science-breaking-how-heartbreak-hurts-your-physical-and-mental-health-306320

The Science Behind Heartbreak. (n.d.). Retrieved April 14, 2016, from http://www.science20.com/variety_tap/science_behind_heartbreak-33900



Laughing

Posted by Jada Terrell in Science And Society - Best - Y on

​Science: When we laugh, multiple parts of our brain are triggered. These regions include- limbic system, amygdala and hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and frontal lobe. These each have to do with behavior, emotion, social connection, and or sound. The main part is the limbic system. There haven't been any research done to identify what exactly triggers us to laugh, just the regions of the brain. I learned that we laugh when our brain tells us to, not exactly when we want to. The study of laughter is called the "gelotology". Laughing can be an exercise. For every 15 minutes of laughter, you can burn up to 40 calories. 

Society: People always say that laughter is the best medicine. There are reasons why, because it improves you physically, socially, and mentally. Physically, when you laugh, your muscles relax. Like stated above, you can burn calories with laughter. It prevents from heart attacks and other cardio issues because it helps your heart pump a lot of blood and it helps your immune system as well by increasing immune cells. It also increases infection-fighting antibodies. Socially, you build relationships over laughter. With all the different languages in the world, laughter is common amongst us all. It is also very contagious, that is proven, so when you are having a good laugh and are in a good mood, that helps improve someone else's mood around you. Mentally, laughter decreases stress hormones, so you feel at ease. It eases your anxiety and fear. 


Self: The reason that I chose to do laughter for this project is because I love laughing. It's one of my favorite things to do because it makes me feel really good. I make myself laugh a lot too, I really crack myself up at the things I think of in my head, and or say out loud. I like to make other people laugh too. I just wanted to look into the science behind laughter to see what I could learn. I didn't learn much scientifically about what triggers me to laugh in my brain, I just know the regions affected when I am about to laugh, and while I'm laughing, which was also interesting to find out. 

Sources: 
    

Dreams

Posted by Caitlin Keough in Science And Society - Best - Y on

Science:
Dreaming occurs during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, which is the stage of sleep closest to waking. While we sleep, our brains are more active than they are during our waking hours. This is because our brains use sleeping as a way to process all of the information we learned during the day so that we can remember it. Many scientists and inventors have come up with their discoveries through dreams. For example, Niels Bohr discovered the structure of an atom in a dream. 

Society:
During a typical lifetime, we spend 6 years of our life dreaming. Everyone dreams even if they claim they don't. Those people just can't remember the multiple dreams that they do have. People who are born blind still dream, but their dreams are more centered around the other senses. People that are born with sight but go blind later in life can still see in their dreams. Some people have created small societies where they discuss their dreaming experiences. They try to figure out what their dreams mean and how they can control them. There are a lot of forums where people discuss lucid dreaming. Lucid dreaming is when you are aware that you are dreaming. Lucid dreaming is rare as it is, but it's even rarer to be able to control your dreams during lucid dreaming. Another sleep occurrence that has sparked a lot of discussion is sleep paralysis. Sleep paralysis is when your body doesn't successfully transition into or out of REM sleep. This leaves you with your eyes open but without the ability to speak or move. Sleep paralysis typically only lasts between one to two minutes, but it can be accompanied by vivid and scary hallucinations. When you dream, you can only see the faces of people that you have seen at least once before in your life. Other interesting discoveries that have been made about dreams include that men have more violent dreams and that 70% of the other characters in men's dreams are other men whereas women dream about both men and women equally as much. 

Self:​
I used to have a really hard time remembering my dreams, but recently I have been getting a lot better at doing so. I haven't used any techniques that are supposed to help you remember dreams, but I have read about ways that do work for other people. Some people keep a dream journal where they right them down as soon as they wake up. 

Sources:

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